® Lack of capacity, exacerbated by a south-north gradient
otherwise move across these boundaries from time
in capacity (number of qualified personnel, equip-
to time. These movements/shifts are associated
ment, vessels etc): The colonial political past in the
with the life histories of the species and also changes
region has resulted in insufficient persons with the
in the environment. The implications of this for sus-
necessary expertise/skills. Moreover, downsizing
tainable management are obvious.
and emigration has resulted in further shrinkage of
® Regime shifts i.e. increased variability or a net change
the skill pool. There is a marked north-south gradi-
towards altered state (B). For example, switching
ent in human and infrastructure capacity in the
between species such as anchovy and sardine or
BCLME, with Angola being the worst off by far, yet
between sardine and jellyfish. These regime shifts
with the greatest needs. Thus available capacity is
can occur naturally ­ there is evidence in the sedi-
barely sufficient to meet present national needs,
ment record of such occurrences having taken
and insufficient to address the priority transboundary
place historically (prior to fishing). The impact of
problems.
fishing exacerbates the problem. Moreover cyclical
changes in wind stress result in north-south shifts
Impacts
in some straddling fish stocks.
Processes that give rise to variability in the Benguela
® Change in flux of CO2, methane and H2S between
occur on three temporal and spatial scales (A: large
atmosphere, ocean and sediments (B). It is not
scale sustained events; B: decadal changes; and C:
known with certainty whether the BCLME is a
high frequency short-lived events and/or episodic
source or sink of CO2, although it appears to be a net
events). There is evidence that environmental change/
sink. Changes in climate could perturb this balance
variability does impact on the BCLME in a number of
and feed back to climate. The BCLME could be a
ways. However, in order that these changes can be
useful targeted site for assessing the role of climate
predicted sufficiently well to be useful for ecosystem
change on upwelling systems and feedback to cli-
management, the cause and effect must be properly
mate from CO2 release/uptake.
quantified. The impact of environmental variability/
change includes inter alia the following:
Risks/uncertainties
® Change to coastal ecosystems from altered wind field
Limited understanding of this highly variable system
(strength and direction) and/or rainfall (quantity and
means that it is uncertain whether the observed vari-
distribution) (A,B). Changes in wind frequency direc-
ability reflects sustained long-term net change or natural
tion and strength impact on the supply of nutrients
cycles, and whether the available data series are suffi-
(for productivity), currents and stratification. In addi-
ciently long to enable us to determine this.
tion there is evidence that SST is related to rainfall
in the region (although the process mechanisms
are not understood).
Socio-economic consequences
® Changes in coastline morphology as a result of
The quality of advice given to resource managers is
climatic regime changes and short-term events
reduced by our ability to predict, with confidence,
(storms) (B,C).
short-, medium- and long-term changes in the Benguela
system. A consequence of this is that responsible
® Short-term events (storms) leading to damage to
resource management must err on what is perceived
coastal infrastructure (C).
to be (but which may not be) the conservative side.
® Variations in zooplankton and fish egg/larval survival
This leads to:
and higher level impacts (A, B and C) through changes
® Uncertain employment (job losses and gains)
in primary production and stratification/turbulence
®
caused by changes in wind frequency, direction and
Variations in revenue
strength.
® Sub-optimal utilisation of resources (particularly by
® Changes in species' abundance, composition, dis-
artisanal fisheries)
tribution and availability (A, B and C) i.e. ecosystem
® Lack of food security
response to environmental change.
® Human population movements in response to
® Changes in fish growth, mortality and recruitment
variable resource availability
(A, B and C) ­ these have major implications for
® High production costs e.g. in fish processing
resource management.
® National/regional conflicts
® Cross-boundary movements of fish, seabirds and
®
seals (A, B and C). The majority of harvested species
Changes in government revenue, private income
of fish either straddle country EEZ boundaries or
and exports
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Transboundary consequences
Activities/solutions
Sustained major environmental events (e.g. Benguela
Without good baseline information and wider regional
Niños), decadal change and major short-term pertur-
co-ordination and articulation, major problems and
bations (e.g. 10- or 50-year storm events) do not
issues facing the three countries bordering the BCLME
respect country EEZ boundaries, but rather impact on
cannot be resolved. It is necessary to undertake targeted
the BCLME as a whole. In other words the types of
assessments of priority environmental variability
environmental variability/change which are the focus
issues/ problems and to develop appropriate systems,
of the BCLME programme are system-wide and in
linkages and networking.
essence transboundary. Moreover, the BCLME is
® Development of a suitable needs-driven, cost-effective
believed to play a significant role in global ocean and
regional environmental early warning system for the
climate processes besides its importance to Angola,
BCLME by cross-linking existing national systems.
Namibia and South Africa. Many of the transboundary
® Transboundary assessment of low oxygen water
consequences listed below would occur regardless of
the high variability of the system. Nevertheless our
formation, dynamics and continuity, and transboun-
ability to manage them effectively is limited by our
dary impacts.
predictive capability. Some of the consequences of
® Feasibility assessment of extension of and/or link-up
increased variability or sustained change include:
to the PIRATA moored buoy array in the tropical
Atlantic to enhance understanding of links between
Climate Change
weather, climate and fish. (PIRATA is an Atlantic
® Changes in the status and/or functioning of the BCLME
equivalent but smaller version of an ocean buoy
may affect its contribution to global climate change
network in the Pacific, which is used to forecast El
through its role as a source/sink of CO
Niños and La Niñas. The value of linking the
2 and source
of methane. Moreover the geographic location of
BCLME with the PIRATA system would be in the
the Benguela at a choke ­ a major route for the
forecasting of Benguela Niños and anomalous
transfer of heat between the Indo-Pacific and Atlantic
events originating in the tropical Atlantic.) If the fea-
­ means that the BCLME may be an important site
sibility assessment were to prove successful (and it
for early detection of global change.
looks like it will), then there is also an excellent
chance of ongoing involvement between the region
Ecosystem
and PIRATA being funded from country sources
®
and donors.
Shifts in distribution of biota ­ for example, decadal
scale shifts in sardine and anchovy distribution bet-
® Determination of the role of upwelling systems as a
ween Namibia and Angola have been documented
CO2 source/sink and methane source. The value of
® Loss of species/biodiversity ­ alien species have also
this to the international community has previously
displaced indigenous species (e.g. spread of
been commented on. Moreover it will provide an
Mediterranean (blue) mussel from near Cape Town
obvious link between the International Waters and
to central Namibia)
Climate Change components of GEF. A modest demon-
stration project would be appropriate.
® Altered food webs
® Disruption of fish, bird and mammal migrations ­
® Development of community projects for cost-effective
cf. 1995 Benguela Niño
environmental information gathering and environ-
mental education. Public awareness and involve-
Fisheries
ment are seen as essential components for the suc-
cessful implementation of the BCLME Programme
® Unsustainable management of shared and straddling
­ both for cost-effective information gathering/
stocks
monitoring and also to help reduce anthropogenic
® Altered fish spawning patterns and population shifts
environmental impacts on the ecosystem.
® Unpredictable fluctuations and availability of fish
® Analysis of plankton archives and other (oceano-
stocks, e.g. collapse of anchovy stock around 1990
graphic) data collections ­ baseline information for
® Unpredictable and variable distribution of fishery
measurement of decadal change. These collections
benefits, e.g. which resulted in the closure of fish-
are unique assets and initial indications are that
canning factories
they may hold the key to unravelling some of the
® Regional economic instability and unemployment
decadal variability which has characterised the
® Regional conflicts over declining resources/stocks
BCLME of the last 50 years and which has ham-
pered sustainable harvesting of living resources.
Coastal infrastructure
® Develop state of the environment analysis/reporting
® Costly maintenance of coastal infrastructure
system for use on a regional basis in the BCLME.
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® Develop links with CLIVAR and CLIVAR Africa (CLIVAR
® Establish links with the Gulf of Guinea LME. Clearly
= Climate Variability and Predictability Project of the
the BCLME does not function in isolation from the
World Climate Research Programme).
rest of the south Atlantic, so building bridges/net-
® Adapt/develop predictive mathematical models
working with other LME projects could provide
applicable to the region. The utility of this has been
valuable spin-offs in both directions.
referred to elsewhere.
® Establishment of regional advisory groups and net
Priority
working centres. This is a low-cost activity with
® Proposed activities are ranked on a scale of 1-3 in
potential large benefits.
terms of their perceived priority. Only those activi-
® Develop transboundary environmental variability
ties which address transboundary problems requir-
networking for region. This links in with the pro-
ing incremental funding are listed.
posed early warning system (see above). It will
make extensive use of the Internet.
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Anticipated outputs
® Assessment using the best available knowledge and
®
expertise links between the BCLME and the global
Proven/validated regional environmental early warn-
climate system.
ing system appropriate for the BCLME in a form
which could be used to leverage future country and
® Quantification of CO2 and methane source/sink re-
donor co-financing for permanent implementation.
lationships in the BCLME with an understanding of
®
its applicability to other boundary systems and cli-
Assessment of utility/application of a PIRATA-type
mate models.
buoy array for the BCLME.
® Useful predictions and models.
® Documented assessment of information needed to
design monitoring/predictive systems.
® Identification of cost-effective early-warning indi-
®
cators of environmental changes that impact on
Assessment of decadal ecosystem changes in the
fish stocks in the BCLME.
BCLME since the 1950s based on historical/archival
data and collections.
® Establishment of regional environmental network
®
and reporting system ­ making full use of remotely
An established regional environmental analysis/
sensed products and the Internet ­ in a form that can
reporting system/network and activity centre.
be self-sustaining operationally.
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TABLE B2: CAPACITY STRENGTHENING AND TRAINING
Problems
Causes
Impacts
Risks/Uncertainties
B2.
· Limited inter-country
· Inability to participate
· Commitment to
There is a lack of capacity, expertise and
exchange (training)
in regional decision
supporting capacity
ability to monitor environmental
· Degrading and down-
making processes
development by
variability, to assess the linkages and
sizing of research
· Regional imbalances in:
governments of the
ecosystem impacts of this variability
institutions
baseline information,
BCLME region
and to develop a predictive capability
· Inadequate training
predictive capacity, data
· Political and economic
required for sustainable integrative
programme
collection ability etc.
uncertainty
BCLME management.
· Lack of running funds
· Inadequate inform-
There is also an unequal distribution
· Lack of skills to main-
ation for finding indi-
and availability of capacity (human and
tain equipment
cators of future change
infrastructure) between participatory
· Lack of equipment and
· Lack (low) interaction
countries.
supplies
between institutions
· Lack of person power
· Information which is
not comparable/cannot
· Low salaries
be integrated across
· Lack of concern from
the region
the policy makers on
the ecosystem issues
· Brain drain
B2 EXPLANATORY NOTES
® Degrading and downsizing of research institutions
PROBLEM: LACK OF CAPACITY, EXPERTISE
as a result of pressure to reduce the size of the civil
AND ABILITY TO MONITOR ENVIRON-
service.
®
MENTAL VARIABILITY
Inadequate training/skill development programmes.
® Limited funds to meet day to day running expenses,
let alone to invest in hardware and capital items.
Causes
® Limited skills to maintain equipment.
The three countries (Angola, Namibia and South
®
Africa) bordering the BCLME are developing countries
Limited availability of equipment and supplies ­
with requirement to meet the basic living needs of their
most high-tech equipment needs to be sourced
peoples. These countries have emerged from long
abroad, and unfavourable local currency exchange
periods of colonialism and oppression and are
rates have made this equipment unaffordable.
attempting to develop their economies and social
® Severely limited numbers of trained personnel ­
structures. Funding for marine monitoring and assess-
the lack of trained personnel is a direct consequence
ment activities are very limited and policy makers are
of colonialism and also the former apartheid policy
not always fully aware of the importance of environ-
applied in Namibia prior to 1990 and in South Africa
mental variability/change in ocean management appli-
prior to 1994. This has resulted in a legacy of a poor
cations. Viewed collectively, the lack of capacity can be
skills pool and an unequal distribution of skills with-
ascribed to the following:
in countries and between countries.
®
®
Lower priority placed on environmental issues by
Inadequate remuneration for government researchers
policy makers.
(competition from the private sector).
®
®
Limited inter-country exchange of personnel for
Brain drain: loss of personnel to the private sector
liaison, experience sharing and training.
and overseas because salaries are not competitive
and career prospects uncertain.
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Socio-Economic
Transboundary
Incremental
Anticipated
Activities/Solutions
Priority
Consequences
Consequences
Cost (5y)
Outputs
· Sub-optimal or over
· Unco-ordinated
· Address capacity
1
$ 25 000
· Capacity devel-
utilisation of renewable
resource management,
needs to address
opment strategy
resources due to lack
research and monitor-
transboundary issues
for region
of information, knowl-
ing programmes
· Devise strategy* for
N/A to
· Strategy for job
edge and understand-
· Management of over-
developing job oppor-
GEF
creation (and
ing required for
all system by all three
tunities, salaries and
salaries)
resource management
countries is not har-
infrastructure
· Improved
· Unequal opportunities
monised. Capacity
· Develop training part-
1
$ 250 000
regional man-
for resource access/
gradient (south-north)
nerships with private
agement of
management
leads to uneven
sector
resources and
· Absence of full stake-
research monitoring
· Creation of regional
establishment
holder participation
effort in the system as
multidisciplinary work-
of new institu-
· Creation of conflict
a whole with conse-
ing groups
tional networks
quences for resource
· Poorly informed/
· Devise, develop and
· Shared
management
advised governments
implement appropriate
expertise
at all levels
· Difficulties with
training courses
resource co-operation
· Low institutional
· Interchange of pers-
1
$ 25 000
sustainability
· Inability to monitor or
onnel between coun-
manage the system as
tries to gain/ transfer
a whole
expertise and know-
ledge
· Improve networking
1
via Internet
· Improve public infor-
2
mation/environmental
education (pilot project)
Impacts
priority status of marine science, technology and
management at the regional level.
The consequences of insufficient funding of research
in the BCLME include:
® Political and economic uncertainty results in potential
®
"recruits" choosing more lucrative careers ­ partic-
Regional imbalances in baseline information, pre-
ularly those that favour mobility (emigration).
dictive capacity, data collection ability etc. There is
a sharp gradient in the numbers of trained person-
nel from south to north.
Socio-economic consequences
® Limited ability to participate in regional decision
The underestimation by policy makers of the importance
making processes, as too few people are available
of developing and maintaining sufficient research
to do the tasks at hand.
capacity to manage the resources of the BCLME has
® Inadequate information for identifying indicators of
resulted in numerous socio-economic problems
future change.
including:
® Limited interaction between institutions. This problem
® Sub-optimal or over-utilisation of renewable resources
is fast disappearing as a consequence of these coun-
® Unequal opportunities for resource access/manage-
tries to collaborate.
ment
® Collection of information which is not comparable/
® Absence of comprehensive stakeholder participation
cannot be integrated across the region.
® Creation of conflicts
®
Risks/uncertainties
Poorly informed/advised governments at all levels
® Low institutional sustainability.
® Although the governments of the region are com-
mitted to capacity (skill/expertise development),
All of the above are in turn direct consequences of
this commitment is according to perceived national
inadequate/inappropriate communication and in some
priorities. There is uncertainty with regard to the
case lack of trust between various players.
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Transboundary consequences
Activities/solutions
The Benguela ecosystem is believed to play a signifi-
® The first action must be a comprehensive study of
cant role in global ocean and climate processes
the real needs for human capacity and infrastructural
besides its importance to Angola, Namibia and South
development/maintenance relevant to the identified
Africa. Consequences of poor national and regional
transboundary issues in which clear priorities are
management practices thus have wide-reaching con-
listed. This must be executed in co-operation with
sequences including:
all stakeholders to ensure a proper balance and
® Non cost-effective resource management, research
minimum vested interest bias.
and monitoring activities (fragmented, poorly
® Institutional downsizing, freezing/reduction/non-
planned and unlikely to achieve the objectives of
creation of posts, poor salaries and career prospects
ensuring sustainable management).
are limiting factors. If not addressed, recruitment
® Management of overall system by all three coun-
and training initiatives will provide little or no long-
tries is not harmonised. Capacity gradient (south-
term benefits. It is thus vital that a comprehensive
north) leads to uneven research monitoring effort
strategy be developed to address the above. (Much
in the system as a whole with consequences for
of the problem stems from incorrect perceptions
resource management e.g. possible bias in infor-
and poor communication.) This activity, although
mation and advice leading to inappropriate de-
very important, is inappropriate for GEF funding,
cision making.
and will be pursued through other avenues.
® Difficulties with co-operation in respect of sustainable
® Develop training partnerships with private sector.
resource utilisation. A holistic approach is needed
This will promote private sector "buy-in" and pro-
to correct the damage done in the past from frag-
vide a point of departure for long-term co-financing
mentation and ad hoc "crisis" management.
with industry and business.
® Inability to monitor or manage the ecosystem as a
® Devise, develop and implement training courses
whole ­ The transboundary nature of the issues
appropriate for the needs of the region. (The focus
and problems in the BCLME necessitates a holistic
of courses developed for application in Western
approach.
Europe and North America is not always suitable for
implementation in developing countries.)
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® Creation of regional multidisciplinary working groups.
Priority
This will be a cost-effective mechanism for consul-
® Proposed activities are ranked on a scale of 1-3 in
tation, co-operation, skill development, trust build-
terms of their perceived priority. Except for activity
ing etc.
asterisked, only those activities which address
® Interchange of personnel between countries to gain/
transboundary problems requiring incremental
transfer expertise and knowledge. To be successful
funding are listed.
this must be tri-directional.
® Improve networking via Internet. It is envisioned
Anticipated outputs
that increased use of electronic media is the key to
®
the success of the BCLME programme at all levels.
Capacity development strategy for the region rele-
It will be particularly beneficial for training and sys-
vant to addressing transboundary concerns as per
tem monitoring.
the Strategic Action Plan.
® Improve public information/environmental education
® Strategy to ensure secure posts for existing and
(pilot project). There is a relative lack of public
newly trained personnel (including market related
awareness about the BCLME, human impacts on
remuneration).
the ecosystem, problems to be addressed to ensure
® New institutional networks taking advantage of the
its sustainable utilisation and conservation of biodi-
Internet and world wide web.
versity, opportunities for job creation and wealth
® Improved regional management of resources.
generation etc. A pilot project designed to increase
® Increased multilevel public awareness of the issues
awareness at all levels is seen as important.
and problems and the need for sustainable inte-
grated management of the BCLME.
® Improved infrastructure and improved availability
of persons with the necessary skills.
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TABLE B3: MANAGEMENT OF CONSEQUENCES OF HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS
Problems
Causes
Impacts
Risks/Uncertainties
B3.
· Natural processes
· Poisoning and mortality
· Increase or decrease in
Harmful algal blooms are a conspicuous
· Introduction of cysts in
of human consumers
incidence and intensity
feature of upwelling systems:
surface waters
of marine organisms
of HABs
· Nutrient loading of
· Mortality (mass) of
· Role of HABs in the
The frequency of occurrence, spatial
coastal waters from
marine organisms
system as a whole
extent and duration of harmful algal
anthropogenic activities
· Disruption of mari-
· Contribution of
blooms appear to be increasing in the
culture activities
· Changing state of the
anthropogenic nutrient
BCLME. The harmful effect of these
· Interference with
Benguela ecosystem
loading to incidence of
blooms is manifested in two main
recreational use of
ways: production of toxins which cause
· Introduction of exotic
HABs
the sea
mortalities of shellfish, fish and humans;
species
· Anoxia which in turn
and anoxia in inshore waters which
may cause massive
also can lead to massive mortalities of
mortalities of marine
marine organisms.
organisms
B3 EXPLANATORY NOTES
Impacts
PROBLEM: HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS
HABs affect a wide spectrum of activities in the marine
(HABs)
environment. The impacts include:
® Poisoning and mortality of human consumers of
Causes
marine organisms. There is documented evidence
of human mortalities in the BCLME as well as non-
® Natural processes ­ HABs occur naturally in the
fatal impacts.
BCLME. Human impact can cause these HABs to
® Mortality (mass) of marine organisms. The species'
spread, and introduce exotic HAB species into the
at highest risk are the filter feeders (e.g. mussels)
BCLME.
and organisms that consume these filter feeders.
® Introduction of cysts into surface waters ­ Human
Mortality can be caused directly by toxins and clog-
activities such as drilling, mining (dredging) and
ging of gills, and indirectly by depletion of oxygen
certain types of fishing disturb the sediments and
in the water column.
release cysts of HAB species into the water column,
® Disruption of mariculture activities ­ Mariculture is
thereby triggering new blooms, and expanding the
dependent on good water quality. HABs result in
area impacted by HABs.
disruption or closure of mariculture facilities neces-
® Nutrient loading of coastal waters from anthro-
sitating expensive water treatment, isolation of
pogenic activities ­ Increased nutrient loading of
facilities, etc. Depending on the nature of the mari-
coastal waters from, for example, sewage dis-
culture venture and the HAB, the closure/disruption
charges and industries increase the probability of
can be short-lived or permanent.
occurrence of HAB outbreaks.
® Interference with recreational use of the sea ­ Apart
® Perceived increase in frequency of HABs may be
from being toxic and unsightly, some HABs cause
the result of changes in the state of the Benguela
respiratory problems in swimmers and those living
ecosystem. (System-wide monitoring for HABs is
in close proximity to the sea.
needed to discern any definite trend.) Nevertheless
® Anoxia which in turn may cause massive mortalities
the changes
in SST and wind stress observed in
of marine organisms. For example, in a single epi-
the BCLME this century would be compatible with
sode in St Helena Bay, a biomass of rock lobster
an increase in HAB frequency and distribution.
equivalent to or greater than the annual total allow-
® Introduction of exotic species (through ballast water,
able catch in the entire southern Benguela was lost
bilge water, mariculture operations etc.) ­ There is
as a result of a single HAB outbreak.
little or no control over the discharge of ballast
water from ships entering national waters in the
three countries, and there is a suspicion that these
discharges may be responsible for the spread of
HABs in the BCLME.
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Socio-Economic
Transboundary
Incremental
Anticipated
Activities/Solutions
Priority
Consequences
Consequences
Cost (5y)
Outputs
· Human mortality
· Occurrence of HABs in
· Develop an HAB
2
$ 50 000
· HAB regional
· Loss of tourism revenue
all three countries
reporting system for
network
· Increased cost of shell-
· Migrations of species
BCLME region as a
· Regional
fish production (moni-
across national
whole
contingency
toring, testing, depura-
boundaries
· Regional HAB
2
$ 100 000
plan
tion)
contingency plans
· Training of
· Loss of fish/ shellfish/
· Community projects
2
$ 50 000
public health
mariculture markets
linked to ministries of
officials
and jobs
health
· Public edu-
· Mitigation of impacts
2
($ 50 000)
cation materials
of HABs
· Proactive
· Improve national
2
(National)
management
capacity to monitor
toxins/species
Risks/uncertainties
within the BCLME, and is also essential for the
development of a sustainable mariculture industry
® Increase or decrease in incidence and intensity of
HABs as a consequence of insufficient monitoring
® Community awareness projects linked to national
ministries of health to alert the public to dangers
® Role of HABs in the system as a whole
associated with HABs
® Contribution of anthropogenic nutrient loading to
® Develop national/regional HAB contingency plans
incidence of HABs
which include early warning systems and guide-
lines for medical practitioners to deal with HAB
Socio-economic consequences
associated problems
® Human mortality ­ Deaths have occurred and
® Improve national capacity to analyse for toxins and
numerous people have suffered respiratory difficulties
identify harmful species by sharing expertise
and gastro-intestinal problems as a consequence
between countries
® Loss of tourism revenue (see impacts)
® Mitigation of impacts of HABs on mariculture oper-
® Increased cost of shellfish production (monitoring,
ations (e.g. relocation of mussels rafts, treat blooms
with "herbicides").
testing, depuration)
® Loss of fish/shellfish/mariculture markets and jobs
Priority
­ Mariculture is a potentially valuable growth industry
® Proposed activities are ranked on a scale of 1-3 in
in the BCLME, but is constrained by a general lack
terms of their perceived priority. Only those activi-
of knowledge, including lack of information about the
ties which address transboundary problems requiring
extent of the HAB problem in the BCLME.
incremental funding are listed.
Transboundary consequences
Anticipated outputs
® Incidence and effects of HABs are common to all
® Established HAB regional reporting network, with
three countries
transboundary early warning system (to alert
® HAB outbreaks can be extensive and straddle national
neighbouring state when required)
boundaries. In addition, advective processes together
® Regional contingency plans for dealing with effects
with shipping operations, bottom trawling and mining
of HABs implemented in all three countries
(dredging) can redistribute cysts across national
® Public education materials prepared and distributed
boundaries.
regionally
® Substantial contribution to the sustainable and re-
Activities/solutions
sponsible development of mariculture within the
® Develop an HAB reporting system for the BCLME
BCLME
region as a whole ­ This is seen as a high priority
® Proactive integrated management in general.
TA B L E B 3 : M A N A G E M E N T O F C O N S E Q U E N C E S O F H A R M F U L A L G A L B L O O M S
4 1

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TABLES C: MAINTENANCE OF ECOSYSTEM HEALTH AND MANAGEMENT OF POLLUTION
TABLE C1: IMPROVEMENT OF WATER QUALITY
Problems
Causes
Impacts
Risks/Uncertainties
C1.
· Unplanned coastal
· Public health
· Few or no baseline data
Deterioration in coastal water quality:
development
· Reduced yields
· Performance stan-
· Chronic oil pollution
· Unsafe edible
dards and thresholds
Coastal developments and rapid expan-
· Industrial pollution
organisms
· National commitment
sion of coastal cities, much of which
· Sewage pollution
· Changes in species
to capacity-building
was unforeseen or unplanned,
has created pollution "hotspots".
· Air pollution
dominance
· Cause and effect
· Mariculture
· Ecosystem health and
relationships
Aging water treatment infrastructure
· Lack of policy on
resilience
and inadequate policy/monitoring/
waste and oil recycling
· Loss of jobs at regional
enforcement aggravates the problem.
· Growth in coastal
level
informal settlements
TABLE C2: PREVENTION AND MANAGEMENT OF OIL SPILLS
Problems
Causes
Impacts
Risks/Uncertainties
C2.
· Sea worthiness of
· Coastline degradation
· Recovery period
Major oil spills:
vessels/equipment
· Mortality of coastal
· Cost recovery
· Military conflict
fauna and flora
mechanisms
A substantial volume of oil is transport-
· Sabotage
· Return to peace in
ed through the BCLME region and with-
· Human error
Angola
in it, and this is a significant risk of con-
tamination of large areas of fragile
coastal environments from major acci-
dents, damage to straddling stocks and
coastal infrastructure.
TABLE C3: REDUCTION OF MARINE LITTER
Problems
Causes
Impacts
Risks/Uncertainties
C3.
· Growth of coastal
· Faunal mortality
· Accumulation zones
Marine litter:
settlements
· Negative aesthetic
· Illegal hazardous
· Poor waste
impacts
waste disposal
There is a serious growing problem
management
· Damage to fishing
throughout the BCLME.
· Little public awareness
equipment
and few incentives
· Illegal disposal from
vessels
· Poverty of coastal
communities
· Ghost fishing
· Fishing discards
4 2
TABLES C1­3: IMPROVEMENT OF WATER QUALITY; PREVENTION AND MANAGEMENT OF OIL SPILLS; REDUCTION OF MARINE LITTER

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Socio-Economic
Transboundary
Incremental
Anticipated
Activities/Solutions
Priority
Consequences
Consequences
Cost (5y)
Outputs
· Loss of tourism
· Transboundary pollu-
· Develop standard
1
$ 100 000
· Shared solu-
· Higher health costs
tant transport
environmental quality
tions for water
· Altered yields
· Migration of marine
indicators/criteria
quality
management
· Reduced resource
organisms, e.g. seals
· Establish regional
1
$ 50 000
quality
· Negative impacts on
working groups
· Regional
protocols and
· Aesthetic impacts
straddling stocks
· Training in marine
2
$ 100 000
pollution control
agreements
· Lowered quality of life
· "Hotspots", common
solutions
· Plan/adapt regional
· Improved
· Loss of employment
1
$ 50 000
pollution monitoring
pollution control
framework
· Socio-economic
· Establish effective
1
(National)
uplift
enforcement agencies*
· Demo projects on
2
$ 500 000
pollution control and
prevention
· Joint surveillance
2
$ 200 000
Socio-Economic
Transboundary
Incremental
Anticipated
Activities/Solutions
Priority
Consequences
Consequences
Cost (5y)
Outputs
· Opportunity costs (e.g.
· Resource sharing for
· Regional contingency
1
$ 50 000
· Regional con-
tourism, fisheries, salt
containment, surveil-
plan development
tingency plan
production)
lance, rehabilitation, etc.
· Research/ modeling of
3
· Shared
· Altered yields
· Ramsar site protection
recovery periods
resources
· Reduced resource
(border wetlands)
· Public awareness of
3
· Rehabilitation
quality
· Transboundary
notification procedures
plans
· Aesthetic impacts
pollutant transport
· Port state control
3
· Regional pro-
tocols and
agreements
Socio-Economic
Transboundary
Incremental
Anticipated
Activities/Solutions
Priority
Consequences
Consequences
Cost (5y)
Outputs
· Loss of fishing income
· Transboundary
· Litter recycling
2
· Cleaner beaches
· Public health
transport
· Harmonisation of
3
· Education
· Cleanup costs
packaging legislation
material/docu-
ments available
· Loss of tourism
· Public awareness
1
regionally
· Job creation in
· Port reception facilities
1
· Standardised
informal sector
· Regulatory enforce-
2
$ 50 000
policies and
ment
legislation on
· Standardised policies
2
$ 100 000
packaging/
· Seafarer education
1
$ 50 000
recycling
incentives
TABLES C1­3: IMPROVEMENT OF WATER QUALITY; PREVENTION AND MANAGEMENT OF OIL SPILLS; REDUCTION OF MARINE LITTER
4 3

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C1 EXPLANATORY NOTES
Transboundary consequences
PROBLEM: DETERIORATION IN WATER
® Deterioration of water quality may cause species
QUALITY
migration (temporary/permanent). Pollutants from
industries/activities near to country borders can be
transported across boundaries by prevailing currents.
Causes
® Impacts are (variably) common to each of the par-
® Activities are mainly focused around urban centers,
ticipating countries ­ a "generic" project with flexi-
increasing urbanisation and associated knock-on
bility to meet nations' needs should be established.
effects. Worst affected are Luanda, Walvis Bay and
Establishment of common policy is necessary to
Cape Town.
minimise transboundary impacts.
® Various sectors contributing to pollution, with varied
® Most water quality issues are common to at least
degrees of cross sector co-operative management.
two of the countries and require common strategies
® Knock-on effect of introduced mariculture species
and collective action to address.
and associated water quality pollution effects in
protected embayments.
Activities/solutions
® Variable consistency in application of policy, both
® An overall regional working group should be estab-
nationally and regionally.
lished to effectively co-ordinate integrated solutions to:
® Informal and formal settlements vary in their control
·
Environmental quality indicators
of pollution discharges, which are increasing due to
·
Marine pollution control and surveillance
urbanisation.
·
Regional monitoring/inspection of coastal zone
® Shipping activities and hydrocarbon exploration and
·
Regional enforcement of standards
production are major sources of chronic oil pollution.
·
Prevention of "polluters" slipping over the border.
Impact
Priority
® A variety of factors are responsible for deterioration
® Proposed activities are ranked on a scale of 1-3 in
of human health and ecosystem health/resilience
terms of their perceived priority. Except where
(Refer to BCLME Thematic Reports 1-6).
asterisked, only those activities which address
® Species invasion (poorly planned mariculture enter-
transboundary problems requiring incremental
prises), changes in species dominance, reduced
funding are listed.
yields from ecosystem.
® Loss of jobs at regional level, reduction of regional
Anticipated outputs
tourism potential.
® Integrated local, national, or regional system imple-
mentation with decrease in pollution and associated
Risks/uncertainties
long-term savings in clean-up and education costs.
®
It is anticipated that the benefits which will be
Limited data available from which to evaluate existing
demonstrated by the proposed actions will be such
water quality, so it is difficult to establish a regional
that leverage of national or donor funding for con-
baseline.
tinued implementation following the conclusion of
® Validity of existing standards and thresholds within
the BCLME will be possible, in view of the benefits
the regional context is uncertain.
which will accrue from a modest investment.
® Tracing of impacts back to initial causes is difficult
and causation is often unknown.
® Reduction of pollution in worst affected areas may
C2 EXPLANATORY NOTES
not be practicable in short/medium term.
PROBLEM: MAJOR OIL SPILLS
Socio-economic consequences
Causes
® Input of nutrients and associated pollution may cause
® Variability of seaworthiness of vessels operational
a short-term increase in production, combined with
from the region, as well as transport through the
longer-term stock failure.
region.
® These consequences are interrelated: pollution
decreases tourism, which reduces jobs, which
increases poverty, which in turn increases pollution.
4 4
TABLES C1­3: IMPROVEMENT OF WATER QUALITY; PREVENTION AND MANAGEMENT OF OIL SPILLS; REDUCTION OF MARINE LITTER

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Impacts
® Existing formal infrastructure unable to cope with
®
expanding formal developments.
General coastal degradation (temporary habitat loss),
with varied recovery rate, depending on species
® Public apathy/indifference and difference in behavior
vulnerability and spill intensity. Associated moni-
across cultural groups.
toring of fauna/flora recovery is essential.
® "Lost" fishing equipment and associated "wastes."
® Non-returnable/disposable nature of packaging
Risks/uncertainties
containers used in the region (absence of regu-
® Recovery period in system is sensitivity-dependent.
lations and incentives for return of containers and
use of biodegradable materials).
® Regional and national peace and political stability
are most conducive to programme success.
Impacts
® General environmental deterioration leads to aes-
thetic deterioration and then tourism loss.
® Aesthetic and multiple impacts are associated with
economic loss, although there may be job creation
in the informal sector (waste management).
Socio-economic impacts
® Plastics and ropes (including fishing lines) present
® Revenue loss is a function of spill intensity and en-
a significant and growing hazard to marine mam-
vironmental sensitivity, and duration of spill.
mals and seabirds (entanglement, ingestion).
Transboundary consequences
Risks/uncertainties
® Regional co-operation needed in use of equipment/
® Volume of hazardous substances dumping unknown.
manpower.
® Need to identify areas of waste accumulation through
® Riparian/estuarine boundaries are particularly vul-
natural processes.
nerable.
® Positive impacts (job creation in informal sector) are
® Co-operative management of spills moving across
balanced by lack of incentives not to litter.
borders. (Management/clean-up of a major spill near
® Potential degree of transboundary movement.
a country boundary can only be effective if com-
mensurate actions are taken by the neighbouring
® Issues common to all three countries ­ create a
state.)
"blueprint" and apply flexibly to all countries.
Activities/solutions
Activities/solutions
® Regional co-operation paramount in standards
® Public awareness is key to successful implementation
development: policy, equipment, and techniques.
and a sustained clean environment ­ primary focus
is seafarers.
Priority
® Common policy/practice and implementation ­ i.e.
"return" (bottles) product incentives ­ common
® Proposed activities are ranked on a scale of 1-3 in
policy re boundary transfer and legislation (pack-
terms of their perceived priority. Only those activities
aging) review.
which address transboundary problems requiring
incremental funding are listed.
Priority
Anticipated outputs
® Proposed activities are ranked on a scale of 1-3 in
terms of their perceived priority. Only those activities
® Regional policy and optimal utilisation of resources.
which address transboundary problems requiring
incremental funding are listed.
C3 EXPLANATORY NOTES
Anticipated outputs
PROBLEM: MARINE LITTER
® Clean coastal zone
® Educated and uplifted public
Causes
® Improved legislation and co-ordinated standards
® Rapid urbanisation and unplanned settlement, with
implementated from local/national/regional levels
variable and limited/no control by authorities.
® Reduction in negative impacts on marine mammals
and seabirds (particularly relevant to threatened/
endangered species).
TABLES C1­3: IMPROVEMENT OF WATER QUALITY; PREVENTION AND MANAGEMENT OF OIL SPILLS; REDUCTION OF MARINE LITTER
4 5

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TABLE C4: RETARDATION/REVERSAL OF HABITAT DESTRUCTION/ALTERATION
Problems
Causes
Impacts
Risks/Uncertainties
C4.
· Diamond mining
· Increased turbidity
· Near-complete lack
Habitat alteration/destruction
· Demersal trawling
(sediment plumes, etc)
of data
(see also A4):
· Variable river sediment
· Benthic community
· No framework for
input and changing
destruction
impact monitoring
Several habitats have been altered or
land use
· Mobilisation of heavy
· Cumulative local
lost as a consequence of development
· Oil/gas exploration/
metals
vessel impacts
and other human impacts. Impacts can
production and spills
· Faunal impacts e.g.
· Climate change
be categorized into three areas, viz:
· Mariculture
reproductive failure
· Distinguishing impacts
1. Coastal ­ progradation/redistribution
· Natural sediment
· Increased frequency of
from natural spatial
2. Nearshore (< 30m)
transport (altered
HABs
and temporal variation
3. Shelf/slope (200m)
erosion)
· Coastal erosion
· Built coastal structures
· Organic loading/anoxic
· Human settlement and
conditions
resource use
· Mangroves/coastal
deforestation
· Coastal vehicle tracks
C4 EXPLANATORY NOTES
Impacts
PROBLEM: ECOSYSTEM HEALTH DECLINING
® Mining-generated sediment plumes ­ potential re
mobilisation of heavy metals (food chain impacts)
Causes
and water quality deterioration.
®
®
Mariculture can cause local organic loading and
Coastal progradation ­ former mining activities,
anoxic conditions.
subsequent longshore redistribution of sands ­
sedimentation of mangroves and other natural
® Habitat modifications impact on HABs.
processes.
® Coastal destabilisation due to anthropocentric
Risks/uncertainties
activities.
® Incomplete/lack of data ­ severely limiting ­ but
® Natural sediment movement (natural rehabilitation
increasingly available due to mining companies'
of mined areas) ­ masking actual impacts, which
existing programmes.
may possibly pop up later and be more severe.
® Should standardise framework for evaluation of
® Various fishing activities.
impacts.
® Impacts from multiple vessels in close proximity
unknown ­ carrying capacity to be determined.
4 6
TA B L E C 4 : R E TA R D AT I O N / R E V E R S A L O F H A B I TAT D E S T R U C T I O N / A LT E R AT I O N

---

Socio-Economic
Transboundary
Incremental
Anticipated
Activities/Solutions
Priority
Consequences
Consequences
Cost (5y)
Outputs
· Costly infrastructure,
· Sediment transport
· Document fully
1
$ 50 000
· Comprehensive
rehabilitation and
· Common problems,
presented status
status report
maintenance
e.g. erosion
· Adapt and apply
1
$ 150 000
· Regional early
· Loss in mariculture
· Redistribution of marine
regional marine and
warning system
production
fauna as a consequences
coastal early warning
and action plan
· Decreasing human
of habitat alteration
system and action plan
· Transboundary
health via heavy
e.g. hakes, seals
· Assess causality of
2
$ 100 000
causality
metal contamination
habitat alteration
established
· Loss of fisheries
· Adapt and apply stan-
1
$ 50 000
· Regional
productivity/revenue,
dard environmental
structures and
e.g. rock lobster
quality criteria
agreements
· Opportunity costs
· Adapt and apply
1
$ 100 000
· Improved
regional structure to
coastal planning
address problems
· Adapt and apply
1/2
($ 50 000)
expertise in coastal
processes
® Necessary to distinguish anthropogenic impacts
Activities/solutions
from natural variability.
® The present status requires proper documentation,
® Altered sediment structure and particle size com-
and establishment of a baseline at regional level.
position with consequence for bethos and remobil-
® Establish/identify regional parameters for approach
isation of certain minerals (metals).
to early warning systems and associated quality
performance standards.
Socio-economic consequences
® Develop mechanisms of co-operation between
® Unknown costs of rehabilitation and subsequent
industries, ministries and other stakeholders, and
evaluation of rehabilitation success.
strengthen capacity.
® Human health affected through knock-on effect in
® Needs-assessment to improve coastal management
food chains.
expertise.
® Loss of revenue from renewable resources.
Priority
Transboundary consequences
® Proposed activities are ranked on a scale of 1-3 in
® Marine fauna migrating due to habitat loss.
terms of their perceived priority. Only those activities
which address transboundary problems requiring
® Sediment remobilisation.
incremental funding are listed.
TA B L E C 4 : R E TA R D AT I O N / R E V E R S A L O F H A B I TAT D E S T R U C T I O N / A LT E R AT I O N
4 7

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TABLE C5: CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Problems
Causes
Impacts
Risks/Uncertainties
C5.
· Introduction of alien
· Local extinction espe-
· Source of alien
Loss of biotic integrity:
species
cially of benthic species
commensals?
· Selective fishing
· Introduction of
· Invasive ability?
This refers to ecosystem impacts
mortality (targeted
pathogens
· Beneficial or harmful?
including changes in community com-
fishing)
· Genetic impoverish-
· No baseline data
position, species diversity, and introduc-
· Incident mortality
ment (loss of resilience)
tion of alien species ­ a set of measures
bycatch/discharges
of ecosystem health.
· Pollution impact
· Over-harvesting
· Habitat alteration (e.g.
destruction of man-
grove areas)
· Lack of implementation
of international laws
C5 EXPLANATORY NOTES
® Beneficial or harmful? The "beneficial" assessment
PROBLEM: LOSS OF BIOTIC INTEGRITY
is a socio-economic one (e.g. mussels are tasty and
easier to grow in mariculture than indigenous
ones), but the "harmful" assessment is primarily an
Causes
ecological one. (In the longer term, what may at
® Introduction of alien species.
present be perceived as beneficial may not be sus-
tainable. This has serious implications for sustain-
® Changes in community composition, population
able integrated management of the ecosystem.)
distribution and abundance due to overfishing,
selective fishing (targeted at a particular species),
and incidental (bycatch) mortality.
Socio-economic consequences
® Other identified causes included pollution impacts,
Alien species:
habitat alteration (including mangrove destruction),
® Potential public health impacts refer primarily to
and lack of implementation of international con-
pathogens imported with ballast water aliens.
ventions (e.g. Convention on Biological Diversity
® Opportunity costs: for example, alien infestations
and marine treaties).
can cause a loss of diving tourism revenue.
® Lack of holistic approach to ecosystem manage-
ment, i.e. only management of individual species/
Fishing impacts:
components in isolation.
® Political pressure to over-harvest: In a population
recovery period, low quotas often cannot be imple-
Impacts
mented due to political pressure (leading to a very
much longer recovery period).
® Introduction of pathogens and other commensal
® Prolonged recovery periods strain the industry
species: Alien species (intentionally or inadvertently
through loss of revenue. Uncertainty of sustainable
imported) may arrive with unseen viruses, ecto-
livelihoods: Government policy incentives are
parasites, and other commensals.
needed to encourage alternative job creation to
® Genetic impoverishment refers to the loss of genetic
sustain fishers during low yield periods, or a temp-
variability as a result of population `bottlenecks'
orary industry shutdown.
(severe crash in population numbers) which will
® Modification of food source of consumers: in Namibia
normally reduce population resilience and fitness
especially, some cultures will not willingly eat
(ability to cope with future environmental change).
marine fish (although inland fish are eaten). It is a
policy attempt to improve national food security,
Risks/uncertainties
given that maize is imported and 80-90% of marine
® Invasive ability: the ability of introduced species to
fish is exported. Not an option in present-day Angola.
survive, reproduce and replace indigenous species.
® Migration of fishers ­ when over-harvesting causes
depletion of fish stocks, fishers may be forced to move.
4 8
TA B L E C 5 : C O N S E RVAT I O N O F B I O D I V E R S I T Y

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Socio-Economic
Transboundary
Incremental
Anticipated
Activities/Solutions
Priority
Consequences
Consequences
Cost (5y)
Outputs
· Loss in community
· Transfer of alien
· Harmonise regional
1
$ 50 000
· Harmonised
income from fishing
species via shipping/
policies
regional policy
and mariculture
mariculture
· Link with GEF ballast
2
· Co-financing
· Potential public health
· Natural processes
water project
· Biodiversity con-
impacts
· Fisher migration
· Regional fishing poli-
1
$ 30 000
servation baseline
· Opportunity costs, e.g.
· Shared stocks
cies co-management
· Regional protocols
tourism
· Identification of MPAs
1
$ 150 000
· Reduction/
· Political pressure to
(including transboun-
control of alien
over-harvest
dary areas)
introductions,
· Lost income ­ pro-
· Identify genetic popu-
2
$ 20 000
policy decisions,
longed recovery time
lations structures
forum
· Uncertainty of sustain-
· Develop forum for
1
$ 50 000
established
able livelihoods
stakeholder participation
· Establishment of
· Modification of food
and negotiation of bio-
negotiated marine
source of consumers
diversity code of conduct
protected areas
Activities/solutions
® Establish/identify regional parameters for approach
®
to early warning systems and associated quality
Cognisance is taken of the existing GEF inter-
performance standards.
national ballast water management project in
which Saldanha Bay is to be used as a model for a
® Develop mechanisms of co-operation between
port management plan (cf. SADC application).
industries, ministries and other stakeholders, and
®
add capacity.
**NB: Angola is very concerned about uncontrolled
dumping/flushing from ships generally (including
® Needs-assessment to improve coastal management
bilge waters ­ not just marine litter and ballast water).
expertise.
® Regional (BCLME region) policy on aquaculture/
mariculture should be developed and then har-
Priority
monised with those of neighbouring countries,
® Proposed activities are ranked on a scale of 1-3 in
including SADC region and (Refer to B3).
terms of their perceived priority. Only those activities
® Regional (and national) management plan for bio-
which address transboundary problems requiring
diversity conservation must include a framework
incremental funding are listed.
for assessment and prediction of environmental
change impacts.
Anticipated outputs
® Identification of marine protected areas: As the
® Regional quality indicators: Adapt and apply existing
national borders within the BCLME region include
environmental quality indicators to the BCLME for
two estuaries: a Ramsar site (Orange River mouth)
specified variables.
and a proposed Ramsar site (Cunene River mouth),
attention can also be given to possible transboundary
® Policy decisions on allocation of seabed: There is a
marine protected areas.
need for a policy decision on whether to renegotiate
® Identify genetic structure of populations: an essential
existing concessions, hold back the granting of new
concessions. "Windows of opportunity" exist
component of a regional biodiversity conservation
between the granting of exploration and production
management plan. It has important implications for
licenses, during which marine protected areas can
fisheries management (do countries manage the
probably be established. (However, this would lead
same or different stocks of individual species?).
to MPAs being restricted to areas rejected by industry,
BENEFIT focuses on genetic structure of shared
not the proactive establishment of biodiversity-rich
fish stocks in the region, but BCLME must focus on
MPAs.)
genetic diversity implications of marine resource
management: genetic pollution, loss of heterozy-
® Harmonised regional policy and emergence of
gosity, etc.
regional protocols.
® Harmonisation of national policies and the develop-
® The establishment of a forum for stakeholder par-
ment of a regional policy.
ticipation in negotiating a biodiversity code of con-
duct is seen as an important outcome.
TA B L E C 5 : C O N S E RVAT I O N O F B I O D I V E R S I T Y
4 9

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TABLE D: BENGUELA CURRENT LARGE MARINE ECOSYSTEM STAKEHOLDERS
SUSTAINABLE
ECOSYSTEM
MANAGEMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL
Stakeholders
HEALTH AND
AND UTILISATION
VARIABILITY
POLLUTION
OF RESOURCES
MINISTRIES RESPONSIBLE FOR:
Fisheries



Environment



Energy



Finance



Health


Immigration

Tourism



Trade

Transport



Mining



Police

Defence

Works

Communication


PRIVATE SECTORS:
Fishing Companies



Mining Companies



Oil and Gas Companies



(Offshore Exploration and Production)
Shipping Companies

Tourism Companies



OTHERS:
International Donor Agencies



Relevant NGOs



Research Institutions and Universities



Coastal Communities



Municipalities


Port Authorities


Meteorological Services


Interested Individuals



5 0
TA B L E D : S TA K E H O L D E R S

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LIST OF ACRONYMS
BCLME
Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem
BENEFIT
Benguela Environment Fisheries Interaction and Training
BEP
Benguela Ecology Programme
CLIVAR
Variability and Predictability Project of the World Climate Research Programme
CO2
Carbon dioxide
EEZ
Exclusive Economic Zone
ENVIFISH
Environmental Conditions and Fluctuations in Distribution of Small Pelagic Stocks
ENSO
El Niño Southern Oscillation
GEF
Global Environment Facility
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GTZ
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit
GOGLME
Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem
HAB
Harmful Algal Blooms
ICSEAF
International Commission for the South-East Atlantic Fisheries
IOC
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
LME
Large Marine Ecosystem
MPA
Marine Protected Area
NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospherics Administration
NORAD
Norwegian Agency for Development Co-operation
PDF
Project Development Fund
SADC
Southern Africa Development Community
SAP
Strategic Action Plan
SST
Sea Surface Temperature
TDA
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO
United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
VIBES
Variability of Exploited Pelagic Fish Resources in the Benguela Ecosystem in relation to
Environmental and Spatial Aspects (Programme)
L I S T O F A C R O N Y M S
5 1

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